American Struggle Read online

  November 30, 1835—Samuel Clemens, also known as Mark Twain, is born in Florida, Missouri.

  March 6, 1836—The Alamo is captured by Mexican forces during the Texas Revolution.

  February 5, 1837—D. L. Moody, founder of Moody Bible Institute, is born.

  September 3, 1838—Frederick Douglass makes his escape from slavery in Baltimore, Maryland, and lives as a free man to become a famous writer, abolitionist, and human rights activist.

  1843—The first commercial Christmas cards are printed and sold in London, England.

  May 24, 1844—Samuel F. B. Morse dispatches the first paper tape code message over an experimental telegraph line.

  1845–1849—The Irish Potato Famine takes hundreds of thousands of lives in Ireland.

  1847—The United States Post Office issues its first postage stamps.

  January 24, 1848—The California Gold Rush begins at Sutter’s Mill in Coloma, California.

  MEG FOLLOWS A DREAM: THE FIGHT FOR FREEDOM VOCABULARY WORDS

  annexation—addition of a country or a territory to another

  “The newspaper is still full of talk about the annexation of Texas. The presidential candidates keep arguing whether it should be a slave state or free. “

  chuckle—to laugh quietly

  A chuckle escaped from Susannah’s lips.

  conjugate—to give the different forms of a verb

  As she listened to Mrs. Gravitt drone on about conjugating verbs, Meg’s pen scratched out swirls and curlicues at the edge of her copybook.

  daguerreotype—an early photograph produced on a silver or a silver-covered copper plate

  At the throat of her black silk dress, the teacher wore a brooch with a small daguerreotype of her deceased husband.

  davenport—a large type of couch or sofa

  She was lying on a davenport with a quilt over her.

  edifice—a large building

  Two long lines of students stood waiting outside the large stone edifice of the Ohio Mechanic’s Institute.

  fob—a chain attached to a watch to carry in a pocket

  Meg wasn’t sure if it was due to the dust or the cigar smoke from a well-dressed gentleman with a shiny gold watch fob.

  frivolous—of little importance

  Meg had wanted to come to the institute and see the galleries ever since it opened the year before, but there never seemed to be time in their household for such frivolous things.

  gawk—to stare stupidly

  Meg was gawking about so much, she nearly stumbled on the small stone steps that led up to the lodge.

  highboys—tall chests of drawers on legs

  Handcrafted Buehler highboys, desks, poster beds, and china closets graced the rooms of many plantation mansions all across the South.

  immigrant—a person who moves to a new country to live permanently

  The two sisters, Hulga and Ida, like many of the German immigrants, spoke with heavy accents.

  lathe—a machine for shaping wood or metal

  This particular evening, Fred explained to his papa how a stationary steam engine could power the lathes in the factory.

  nasturtiums—a trailing plant with round edible leaves and bright orange, red, or yellow flowers

  “That blasted rooster in my nasturtiums again? Tell your ma the next time he’s in my yard, I’m gonna make chicken and dumplings out of him. “

  prodigy—a person who has exceptional talent or abilities

  “It says here that the young child prodigy, Damon Pollard, has been brought to Cincinnati by his uncle, John P. Foote, president of the Ohio Mechanic’s Institute, to study under the famous black artist, Robert Scott Duncanson.”

  pullet—a young hen, especially one less than a year old

  The larger hens pushed the younger pullets out of the way as they greedily pecked at the feed, clucking softly as they went.

  quill—a pen made of a large feather

  She thought a moment before dipping the quill into the ink.

  reprimand—a severe or formal criticism or scolding

  She was sorry she’d caused Susannah to receive a reprimand.

  rotunda—a circular hall or room

  Later, as they emerged from yet another gallery, they came to the rotunda area in the center of the institute where the open balconies from the second and third stories looked down on the first floor.

  salve—a healing cream or ointment

  Mama rubbed salve on Meg’s hand, then wrapped it in a clean piece of white cloth, tying a little knot to hold it fast.

  swoon—to be filled with delight

  She swooned over every picture.

  taunt—to say things to anger, hurt, or ridicule a person

  As the class walked back to the schoolhouse from the institute, Meg could hear several of the boys behind them taunting two young German girls.

  veranda—a covered porch attached to a building

  A wide veranda wrapped around the front of the lodge, trimmed out in elegant stone arches.

  IMPORTANT PEOPLE AROUND 1844

  Robert Scott Duncanson

  Robert Scott Duncanson was an African American artist whose landscape paintings were considered among the best produced in America during the mid-1800s. Duncanson was born in 1821 or 1822 in upstate New York and lived most of his childhood with his father in Canada, where he received a public education and developed a love for literature and art. When he was nineteen, he moved near his mother in Cincinnati, Ohio, a city that had become a center for the arts. Soon, his artwork was showing in many local exhibits, and he was sought after to paint portraits and murals. Duncanson was the first African American to show his work among non-African Americans in competition. One of his most famous works is Blue Hole, Little Miami River, finished in 1852, a depiction of a site along the route of the Underground Railroad. Duncanson died on December 21, 1872, leaving a body of work that greatly influenced future artists.

  William Lloyd Garrison

  William Lloyd Garrison was an American abolitionist—a person who disagreed with slavery and sought to end it in the United States. He was born on December 10, 1805, in Massachusetts. When Garrison was fourteen years old, he became an apprentice to a printer, and by the time he was twenty-two, he was an expert printer and an experienced journalist. He edited the National Philanthropist, the world’s first paper supporting temperance, a movement to eliminate alcoholic beverages. In 1831, he began publishing The Liberator, an antislavery newspaper that had a small circulation in Boston but a wide influence. He also traveled the country opening free-labor stores that would sell only products made by free people, not slaves. Garrison continued his fight until 1865 when the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution ended slavery. He later fought for equal rights for women, justice for Native Americans, and for prohibition of tobacco and alcohol. William Lloyd Garrison died in New York City on May 24, 1879.

  James K. Polk

  James Knox Polk was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from 1845–1849. He was born on November 2, 1795, in North Carolina, the oldest of ten children. Polk graduated from the University of North Carolina, becoming a lawyer and then active in politics. On New Year’s Day in 1824, he married Sarah Childress, who encouraged his political career and became his closest political advisor. The next year, Polk was elected to he U.S. House of Representatives, and in 1839, he was elected as governor of Tennessee. In 1844, he won the election as president of the United States against Senator Henry Clay. Polk enjoyed great success during his presidency, during which the United States added the greatest amount of new territory to the country, but he became the first president not to seek reelection. After his retirement, Polk returned to his home in Tennessee. He died from cholera on June 15, 1849.

  HISTORY IN PERSPECTIVE TIMELINE

  1831—Cyrus Hall McCormick invents the first reaping machine.

  February 23, 1836—The famous fort known as the Alamo falls to Mexican armies in the Texan war for independence.r />
  1837—American inventor Samuel Morse creates the telegraph.

  May 24, 1844—Samuel Morse sends the first public telegram using Morse Code.

  December 29, 1845—Texas joins the United States of America.

  1846–1848—The Mexican War

  1861–1865—The American Civil War

  January 1, 1863—President Abraham Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring many U.S. slaves to be free.

  1863—President Abraham Lincoln declares the last Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day. April 14, 1865—President Abraham Lincoln is shot and killed at the Ford Theater in Washington, DC by John Wilkes Booth.

  1868—Chicago’s Lincoln Park Zoo is the first zoo in the United States to open to the public.

  DARIA SOLVES A MYSTERY: OHIO EXPERIENCES THE CIVIL WAR

  VOCABULARY WORDS

  abhorred—hated

  Papa abhorred any and all uses of tobacco.

  arrogant—overly proud

  He could talk about almost anything, yet he never did so in an arrogant manner.

  askance—a side-glance

  But some people still looked askance at him.

  audacity—uncommon boldness

  Who would have thought those few little states in the South would fight with such pluck and audacity?

  blockade—a restrictive measure designed to obstruct the commerce and communications of an unfriendly nation

  Other businesses folded due to the blockade against shipping to the Rebel states.

  cholera—any of several diseases that usually cause symptoms like stomach cramping and severe diarrhea

  “My parents and sister died of cholera a few years ago. “

  countenance—expression; face

  As March warmth began to chase winter’s barrenness from the air, Mama’s countenance changed. The worry lines were vanishing.

  deployed—spread out or arranged

  He drew lines and diagrams, explaining where all the troops were deployed.

  dunce—someone slow-witted or stupid

  “If you’re willing, Andrew would be a dunce to refuse. “

  dysentery—a disease, usually caused by infection, that causes severe diarrhea mixed with blood and mucous

  I treat many cases of dysentery, typhoid, and flu.

  elite—the best of the best

  Instead, she would join the elite Guthrie Grays like Edward Stephens, Jenny’s beau, had done.

  elocution—the art of public speaking

  Of what use was it to learn about literature and elocution and mathematics, when the entire country was at war?

  entrenchment—a strong defensive position, often consisting of trenches dug into the ground

  Hearing voices up ahead, Daria knew they were drawing near to the entrenchments that the home guards had erected.

  fortification—something that strengthens, defends

  The rumors proved untrue, but fortification plans in the city were sped up considerably.

  foundry—a place where metals are processed

  “Do you realize,” he said, “that most all the older boys have either gone off to fight or are working at the foundry?”

  game—lame

  But when the corporal reached the stairway that led up from the front hall, he looked at them and said, “What excellent exercise this will be for a game leg. “

  hobbled—describes a horse’s legs, fastened together to prevent straying

  Even when Bordeaux was hobbled and grazing in the orchard, he always came when Andrew or Daria whistled.

  howitzer—a short cannon

  The major described the howitzers, mortars, and cannons brought in to destroy the fort.

  livery—an establishment that provides for the feeding, stabling, and caring for horses for pay

  “If I like the place, I’ll have the livery bring the rest of my books and clothes later. “

  malarious fever—a symptom of malaria, a human disease caused by parasites in the red blood cells and characterized by periodic bouts of chills and fever

  Malarious fever, scurvy, and diarrhea attack so many of our number.

  martial law—law administered by military forces in an emergency when civilian law enforcement agencies cannot maintain public order and safety

  “I heard the alarm bells sounding, and then a man came in saying there might be martial law.”

  militia—a group of citizens organized for military service

  “How he’d gone about the country rallying men for his elite militia while everyone else was saying there’d never be a war.”

  morale—mental and emotional condition of an individual or group

  Morale is low; discouragement high.

  mortar—a muzzle-loading cannon

  The major described the howitzers, mortars, and cannons brought in to destroy the fort.

  mustered—convened; caused to gather.

  Daria marveled that so many volunteers could have been mustered so quickly.

  omnibus—a large vehicle designed to carry a large number of people; a bus

  Mrs. Ryan caught the omnibus each morning to go to the hospital and be with her husband.

  palpable—capable of being felt

  No one said a word, yet the worry was palpable.

  pell-mell—with confused haste

  The three raced pell-mell, laughing as they went.

  pontoon bridge—a floating temporary bridge made from a flat-bottomed or portable float

  Daria knew that Andrew didn’t sleep or even stop by the house for the first twenty-four hours while he was helping to build a pontoon bridge.

  ragtag—sloppily put together

  Being part of the Guthrie Grays meant Edward had a full uniform, with brass buttons and epaulets, unlike the ragtag Walnut Hills Home Guard.

  recruits—newly drafted or enlisted members of the armed forces

  They could hear the shouts of the recruits from several blocks away.

  regalia—decorations or insignia indicating a membership or office

  Later, all the military companies of the city turned out in full regalia for the parade through the downtown streets.

  regiment—a military unit

  Ever since April, every group of men in Cincinnati that could be called a group had organized into some sort of regiment.

  routed—defeated completely

  General Lee had routed the Union forces, driving them back from Richmond, Virginia.

  scurvy—a disease caused by lack of vitamin C; symptoms are spongy gums, loose teeth, and bleeding into the skin and mucous membranes

  Malarious fever, scurvy, and diarrhea attack so many of our number.

  seceded—withdrew from an organization

  Miss Epstein had put colored pieces of paper on the states that had seceded from the Union since April. secretary—a writing desk with a top section for books

  The big piano sat in a corner of the room, with Mama’s secretary standing by the windows.

  settee—a long seat with a back

  A cluster of chairs, a couple of settees, and the davenport were clustered nearer the fireplace.

  smug—self-satisfied

  Daria felt almost smug.

  sterling—conforming to the highest standard

  “But know this from me, he is a fine man and a sterling leader. “

  tack—saddle and bridle for a horse.

  Daria pulled a tack box over near the stall and sat on it as she worked oil into the harnesses to keep them soft and supple.

  tender car—a train car that carried fuel and water for the steam engine

  Daria’s thoughts were interrupted by the sight of a figure standing up on the tender car, waving wildly.

  typhoid—a communicable disease, that causes headache, fever, diarrhea, weakness, and intestinal inflammation

  I treat many cases of dysentery, typhoid, and flu.

  wrapper—a robe

  Mrs. Gartner opened the door, still dressed in her
wrapper.

  IMPORTANT PEOPLE AND THINGS AROUND 1862

  Salmon Chase

  Salmon Chase was born on January 13, 1808, in Cornish, New Hampshire. When his father died, Salmon moved to Ohio to live with an uncle. He graduated from Dartmouth College in 1862. After graduation, he moved to Washington, DC, where he ran a school and studied law. After passing the bar examination in 1829, Salmon moved to Cincinnati to practice law. It was there that he became involved with antislavery and other reform movements. He defended many escaped slaves, even in the U.S. Supreme Court. He helped form the Liberty Party and the Free Soil Party, both antislavery parties. Salmon Chase was elected to the U.S. Senate from Ohio in 1849, then as governor of Ohio in 1855 and 1857, and to the Senate again in 1860. His alliance with Abraham Lincoln led to his appointment as Lincoln’s Secretary of the Treasury, a position he held from 1861 until 1864. Chase died on May 7, 1873.

  First Battle of Bull Run

  The First Battle of Bull Run, also known as the First Battle of Manassas, was fought on July 21, 1861. (The Confederates refer to the battle as the First Battle of Manassas because they named battles after the nearest city or town. The Union army named battles after the nearest river or other body of water.) This was the first major land battle of the American Civil War. General Winfield Scott was pushed to make a move against Southern troops, even though he felt the Union troops were not prepared. He ordered General Irvin McDowell to attack the Confederate troops, under Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard, stationed at Manassas Junction, Virginia. Although the Union forces were initially successful, Confederate reinforcements arrived, and the Union troops were forced to retreat.

  Zouave Cadets

  The Zouave Cadets were organized by Elmer E. Ellsworth in 1860. They were named after the Zouaves of the French army who were the subjects of many paintings and illustrations after they fought in the Crimean War. The American Zouave Cadets were engaged primarily in the Siege of Port Hudson, Louisiana. After the war, members of the cadets formed a veterans’ organization that held summer camps and other events that featured military pageantry. The Zouave Cadets were well known for their skills at drill formations. They performed many exhibitions, featuring gymnastic drill formations.